The Role of Students� Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning in Online Language Courses

EIKO USHIDA
University of California, San Diego
Abstract:
This study investigated the role of students� motivation and attitudes in second language (L2) study within an online language course context (LOL). Students� attitudes and motivation were examined within a socioeducational framework (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993) while learning contexts were examined based on D�rneyi�s (1994) components of foreign language learning motivation. Students� learning behaviors and learning outcomes were used as predictor and criterion variables in a series of quantitative and qualitative analyses. The results showed that students tended to have relatively high anxiety about the LOL course at the beginning of the semester, perhaps due to their lack of familiarity with the specific LOL learning environment. However, students� motivation and attitudes toward L2 study were relatively positive and stable during the course. The findings provided some evidence that motivated students studied regularly and productively to take every opportunity to perfect their language skills. It was also found that each teacher idiosyncratically implemented the LOL course, thereby creating a unique class culture and affecting students� motivation and attitudes toward studying the L2 in the LOL context. The findings reinforced the importance of students� motivation and attitudes in L2 study and, equally important, the continuing critical role of the teacher in technology-enhanced teaching.
KEYWORDS
Motivation, Attitudes, Online Course, Second Language, Teacher's Role
INTRODUCTION
A student's attitude and motivation has frequently been reported to be the most critical factor for success within computer-assisted language learning (CALL) environments (Brandl, 2002; Desmarais, 2002; Doherty, 2002; Gilbert, 2001; Murday & Ushida, 2002; Warschauer, 1996a, 1996b). Motivation, according to Winne and Marx (1989), is both a condition for, and a result of, effective instruction. Based on these claims, it is plausible to speculate that students' motivation plays an important role in successful CALL implementation and that, if used effectively, the CALL environment can enhance students' motivation to learn a second language (L2). This study investigated the role of motivation and attitudes on student L2 learning in an online L2 course context. It also examined how this new L2 learning environment affected students' attitudes and motivation, and how this, in turn, affected students' L2 learning.
The Department of Modern Languages at Carnegie Mellon University has been delivering “Language Online” courses (LOL), elementary and intermediate levels of online French and Spanish courses, since Spring 2000. The LOL courses attempt to avoid the constraints of time and space associated with traditional instruction, making it possible for students whose time is often occupied with laboratory, project, or studio courses to take basic foreign language courses. Each LOL is a “hybrid” course consisting of in-class components and out-of-class components, which is generally believed to be more effective than exclusively online courses since hybrid courses provide more guidance to students and help them stay focused on their learning, rather than depending fully on students' self-motivation.
The study was based on two popular frameworks for L2 motivation. First, Gardner and MacIntyre's (1993) socioeducational model of second language acquisition was used to examine the relationship between students' motivation, attitudes, and L2 achievement. Second, components of Dörnyei's (1994) L2 learning motivation model was used to identify motivational factors that were related to the immediate LOL L2 learning situations.
REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE
Focus on Students' Attitudes and Motivation
The study of motivation has been a prominent area for research in psychology and education for many years (Dörnyei, 2001a). This interest may reflect the widespread perception of classroom teachers who tend to regard student motivation as the most important factor in educational success in general (Dörnyei, 2001b).
The literature on L2 motivation has two main streams. One stream consists of a series of studies based on Gardner's socioeducational model in which the role of integrative motivation—comprised of integrativeness, attitudes toward the learning situation, and motivation—was experimentally investigated as a determinant of L2 attainment. The other stream calls for the implementation of a new “agenda” (Crookes & Schmidt, 1991) for L2 motivation research, proposing a number of alternative models with an attempt to gain a more in-depth understanding of L2 learning motivation within mainstream education. While the former studies investigate causal relationships among possible individual-difference variables with various L2 achievement measures, the latter attempts to identify possible variables that could influence learners' motivations within the immediate L2 learning context. Each of these approaches is reviewed in the following sections.
Gardner's Socioeducational Model of SLA
The role of L2 learning motivation has been intensively studied by social psychologists in Canada, where French and English are the two official languages. Gardner (1985) hypothesized that L2 learners with positive attitudes toward the target culture and people will learn the target language more effectively than those who do not have such positive attitudes. In their earlier studies, Gardner and Lambert (1959) found that aptitude and motivation were the two factors most strongly associated with learners' L2 achievement. Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) drew together the findings from many studies over several decades and developed Gardner's “socioeducational model of SLA” (see Figure 1).
Figure 1
Representation of Socioeducational Model of SLA (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993)

Proponents of this model of SLA (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1992, 1993) claim that individual-difference variables (e.g., cognitive variables and affective variables), influenced by antecedent factors (i.e., biological factors such as age and experiential factors such as previous language training experience), interact with both formal and informal language acquisition contexts and influence both linguistic and nonlinguistic outcomes (i.e., students' reactions to the learning experience). Gardner and MacIntyre (1993, p. 9) argue that this model shows the importance of what takes place in the learning contexts: “Teachers, instructional aids, curricula, and the like clearly have an effect on what is learned and how students react to the experience.” The model also predicts that students' degree of success (i.e., linguistic outcomes) affects their feelings (i.e., nonlinguistic outcomes) and that both types of outcomes will have an influence on individual-difference variables including language attitudes and motivation.
Motivation in this model is defined as the extent to which the individual works or strives to learn the language because of a desire to learn the language and the satisfaction experienced in this activity. A “motivated learner” is, therefore, defined as one who is: (a) eager to learn the language, (b) willing to expend effort on the learning activity, and (c) willing to sustain the learning activity (Gardner, 1985, p. 10). Motivation plays a significant role in this model in three ways. First, it mediates any relation between language attitudes and language achievement. Second, it has a causal relationship with language anxiety. Third, it has a direct role in the informal learning context, showing the voluntary nature of the motivated learners' participation in informal L2 learning contexts.
In his current model, Gardner (2000) focuses on motivation and language aptitude as the two most influential determinants of language achievement and shows how integrative motivation affects language achievement (see Figure 2). Moreover, this model predicts that the L2 learning situation could affect learners' attitudes and motivation.
Figure 2
The Role of Aptitude and Motivation in L2 Learning (Gardner, 2000)

Research Supporting Gardner's Model
Gardner's studies of motivation focus on investigating the cause of L2 achievement. Gardner and Smythe (1981) developed a self-report questionnaire called the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) as a tool to measure five attributes associated with L2 learning, four of which are assessed by subtests in the questionnaire:
1. Integrativeness (subtests: Attitudes toward French Canadians, Integrative Orientation, Interest in Foreign Languages),
2. Attitudes Toward the Learning Situation (subtests: Evaluation of the French Teacher, Evaluation of the French Course),
3. Motivation (subtests: Motivational Intensity, Desire to Learn French, Attitudes toward Learning French),
4. Language Anxiety (subtests: French Class Anxiety, French Use Anxiety), and
5. Instrumental orientation (no subtests).
Gardner's studies use the AMTB to measure individual-difference variables. The causal relationship among the variables in collected data are investigated using quantitative analyses such as Factor Analysis or structural equation modeling (Gardner, 2000).
Many studies have subsequently made use of various versions of the AMTB to conduct research into the role of motivation in SLA within Gardner's socioeducational framework in L2 learning contexts outside of Canada. Due to differences in their measurement tools, methods of analysis, and sociocultural contexts, the reported results have varied widely. The following factors have been identified as contributors to L2 proficiency: language aptitude (Gordon, 1980; Lett & O'Mara, 1990); motivation and attitudes (Lett & O'Mara, 1990); self-confidence (Clément, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977, 1980; Clément, Major, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977; Laine, 1977); attitudes toward the language course and classroom anxiety (Muchnick & Wolfe, 1982); and attitudes, motivation and language anxiety (Sison, 1991). However, integrative attitudes were not a significant contributor to motivation among Jewish students who study Arabic or French as a foreign language (FL) in Israel (Kraemer, 1990). Wudthayagorn (2000) adapted the motivation model from Tremblay and Gardner (1995) in the context of a Japanese Foreign Language in Elementary School (FLES) program. She found that their model needed to be modified.
Studies of motivation and attitudes have also shown the connection of the factors listed above to persistence in language study (Bartley, 1970; Clément, Smythe, & Gardner, 1978; Ramage, 1990) and also to learners' behavior in the language classroom (Gliksman, Gardner, & Smythe, 1982). Based on these empirical reports, Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) argue for the importance of the sociocultural context in studies of motivation. As Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) mention, it seems reasonable to conclude that motivation plays a primary role in L2 learning, while other attributes such as the context of L2 acquisition play supporting roles on various levels.
New Research Agenda Movement
A provocative article by Crookes and Schmidt (1991) called for a new research agenda involving L2 learning motivation. They criticized Gardner's socioeducational model for not focusing sufficiently on the L2 instructional context (Dörnyei, 2001a) and for being too limited in two ways:
1. Despite the large sample of subjects with whom Gardner and his associates usually work, their research is always based on one-shot questionnaires (i.e., data collected at one point in time) that are then examined in relation to the final achievement measures.
2. Integrativeness is not equally important for L2 achievement in classroom-based `foreign' language instruction outside Canada.
Crookes and Schmidt claim that motivation is more complex and cannot be measured by a one-shot questionnaire because motivation changes due to a number of environmental factors in addition to integrativeness. Dörnyei (2001a, p. 105) claims that a more “educational orientation in L2 motivation research” is needed. The common belief underlying such an educational movement seems to be a focus on motivational sources closely related to the learner's immediate learning situation rather than their overall attitudes toward the target culture (i.e., integrativeness). In contrast to Gardner's (1985, p.169) claim that “the source of the motivating impetus is relatively unimportant provided that motivation is aroused,” these reformists value the importance of identifying motivational factors within the learning situation to find ways to motivate students (Oxford & Shearin, 1994).
Dörnyei (1994) claims that L2 motivation is an eclectic, multifaceted construct; thus, it needs to include different levels to integrate the various components. Adopting Crookes and Schmidt's approach (1991), Dörnyei found it useful to separate L2 motivation into three motivational components (i.e., motives and motivational conditions): (a) language level, (b) learner level, and (c) learning situation level (see Figure 3).
Figure 3
Components of Foreign Language Learning Motivation (Dörnyei, 1994)
Language Level
Integrative Motivational Subsystem
Instrumental Motivational Subsystem
Learner Level
Need for Achievement
Self-Confidence
Language Use Anxiety
Perceived L2 Competence
Causal Attributions
Self-efficacy
Learning Situation Level
Course-specific Motivational Components
Interest
Relevance
Expectancy
Satisfaction
Teacher-specific Motivational Components
Affiliative Motive
Authority Type
Direct Socialization of Motivation
Modeling
Task Presentation
Feedback
Group-specific Motivational Components
Goal Orientedness
Norm and Reward System
Group Cohesion
Classroom Goal Structure

Language level focuses on orientations and motives related to various aspects of the L2 such as the target culture and the potential usefulness of L2 proficiency. Learner level concerns affects and cognitions underlying the motivational processes. Learning situation level consists of intrinsic and extrinsic motives, plus motivational conditions concerning three areas: (a) course-specific components, (b) teacher-specific components, and (c) group-specific components. This model can be a useful framework not only for researchers and teachers to identify motivational sources but also to develop motivational strategies.
Research Conducted Under Reformists' Motivation Models
Research supporting the reformists' motivation models requires more in-depth investigation of L2 learning situations to explore possible motivational factors. This line of research, therefore, utilizes more longitudinal qualitative methods, in contrast to Gardner's cross-sectional quantitative research method. For example, in her four-year longitudinal study, Oldfather (1995) found that dominance of teacher-centered approaches and fewer opportunities for self-expression were two major factors influencing students' motivation for literacy learning. Ushioda's (1996, 1997) introspective approach to exploring students' L2 motivation, based on qualitative interview data, found that students' motivation had changed over time due to factors both internal and external to the L2-learning context.
Affective Benefits of CALL
Among the various hypothesized benefits of CALL, its positive effects on students' motivation have been most frequently reported. Chun (1994), Kern (1995) and Warschauer (1996a), for example, have investigated the effect of computer-assisted classroom discussion (CACD), as compared to face-to-face class discussion on university-level L2 students' opportunities to participate in discussion, their motivation and anxiety, turn-taking patterns, and so on. These studies found that CACD motivates student-initiated discussion more than teacher-initiated discussion and increased the number of opportunities for students to produce more output regardless of their individual personality differences. In the same vein, Warschauer (1996b) identified empowerment as one of the factors that motivated students in technology-mediated L2 writing classes. He hypothesized that students' perceptions of the possible benefits of Computer-mediated Communication (CMC), such as a sense of achievement and enhancement of learning opportunities, increased their motivation. Beauvois (1994) and Beauvois and Eledge (1996) reported extremely positive attitudes by intermediate French learners who perceived linguistic benefits, affective benefits, and interpersonal benefits from their experiences using CACD.
In a project reported by Jogan, Heredia, and Aguilera (2001), college students of advanced Spanish in the U.S. and college students of English in Chile exchanged email in both languages to learn about the target culture in the target language. These personalized student-driven dialogues appeared to motivate L2 learners to write about and learn about each other's cultures and, more important, to enjoy the interaction/communication. The use of email may also have lowered students' affective filters, allowing them to write what they wanted to in less restrictive ways than in traditional L2 writing assignments.
Web-based assignments are reported to have positive effects on students' attitudes and motivation to learn about the target language and culture (e.g., Lafford & Lafford, 1997; Lee, 1997, 1998; Osuna & Meskill, 1998). Gruber-Miller and Benton (2001) also report on the MOO environment called “Vroma,” a virtual Rome experience for learning Latin, as being successful in creating a program for students to be immersed in Latin language and culture simultaneously. Their students reported that they found the program to be a satisfying, useful, and motivating resource for learning Latin language and culture.
Van Aacken (1999) investigated the role of motivation and attitudes on learning kanji using a CALL program with six college-level learners of Japanese. Her results indicated that (a) the contents of CALL may have affected students' motivation and (b) students' positive attitude toward the CALL program was one of the most influential factors in their mastering kanji effectively. Despite the small sample, Van Aacken's study supports the argument for the importance of students' positive perception on the effectiveness of CALL.
Some L2 teachers have attempted to use various CALL activities to create technology-enhanced language learning (TELL) environments. Adair-Hauck, Willingham-McLain, and Youngs (1999) showed the effectiveness of a TELL learning environment for lowering students' anxiety level so that students could enjoy learning in a more relaxed atmosphere without the pressure of a classroom and peers. The authors argued that the results indicated that the TELL components motivated the students in the treatment group to learn actively on their own and enhanced their collaboration outside the classroom. The authors speculated that this is one of the possible reasons that the TELL group produced better quality writing assignments (i.e., longer and more complex writing) than the control group.
The Importance of Teachers
Teacher-specific motivational components emerged as crucial factors when students evaluated the learning situation in LOL courses, as is often stressed in CALL literature for the effective use of the technology (e.g., Belz, 2003; Glisan, Dudt, & Howe, 1998; Hertz, 1987; Jones, 1986).
The results of the statistical analyses and students' course evaluations suggest that EF students had a less positive language-learning experience than students in the other LOL courses and that the teacher variable may have been the main source of this difference. In fact, the students reported in the course evaluations that the teacher was the center of their satisfaction in the LOL courses (Ushida, 2003). This result is similar to that of Wudthayagorn (2000) who found a positive correlation among students' attitudes toward the teacher, classes, learning, and behavioral attitudes among young learners of Japanese. These results suggest that if students like the teacher, they enjoy the class, are satisfied with their learning experiences, and have positive behavioral attitudes toward the study of the target language regardless of the instructional format (i.e., traditional face-to-face, online, or hybrid).
These results indicate that teachers can be influential in affecting students' motivation and attitudes and in creating a learning community in which students can study a language with less anxiety. Teachers seemed to play the most important role in shaping the culture of the LOL class. It was the teachers who decided how to use or implement the course materials for the class. They had to make a variety of decisions during the course, affecting how and what they did during their once-a-week class and their 20-minute individual meetings, and how they instructed or guided students and LAs to do the required activities. Naturally, teachers' instructions influenced how students studied for this course and how students worked with their classmates and LAs. All of these elements created a culture for each class, and consequently influenced students' attitudes and motivation.
The biggest inherent disadvantage of online courses is reported to be reduced interaction between teachers and students (Trotter, 2002). Thus, the importance of human interaction has been repeatedly emphasized for successful online course delivery regardless of the subject (Gilbert, 2001; Hiss, 2000; Lewis, 2000; White, 2000). Unlike traditional classes where teachers use various teaching strategies to engage their students in learning the subject matter interactively and effectively, online course structures seem to limit the use of such teaching strategies. The results of this study suggest that successful LOL teachers used various teaching strategies to maintain good interaction with students without fully relying on students' self-motivation and responsibility (Ushida, 2003). Teachers' accounts implied that the process of teaching LOL courses was still new, therefore difficult, but that it could also be challenging and profound.
CONCLUSION
This study empirically investigated the role of students' motivation and attitudes on the study of French or Spanish in LOL courses based on two commonly used frameworks for L2 motivation: those of Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) and Dörnyei (1994). Both frameworks were found helpful to interpret the results of the study.
Procrastination has been frequently reported as one of the critical problems for online students (e.g., Gilbert, 2001; Murday & Ushida, 2002). Courses like LOL may make regular study difficult for students who cannot wisely direct their own learning processes. To put it another way, the LOL courses can offer flexibility in terms of pace of learning and how to learn; yet, at the same time, not all students can take advantage of such a learning environment and may find it difficult to manage their own learning. It seems that there is a sort of dynamic tension between the learning materials that students have to work with and how they approach them, which course developers and/or teachers cannot predict.
Motivated students can take advantage of the LOL instruction, and effective LOL instruction can motivate students. Indeed, “good instruction is good instruction, regardless of the delivery system” (Bush, 1997, p. 302). More research is needed to better understand the ways in which technology-based language courses can be most effectively implemented. Additional study of motivation and motivational factors would seem to be clearly warranted to help establish effective online CALL.
NOTES
1 Both questionnaires were developed for the Language Online assessment project (see Chenoweth & Murday, 2003). The GBQ was adapted from an original questionnaire that G. R. Tucker developed with his students in the course called “Social and Cognitive Aspects of Bilingualism” a number of years ago.
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